Mackinder or Mahan Essays

Mackinder or Mahan Essays Mackinder or Mahan Paper Mackinder or Mahan Paper In the modern era, geopolitics is very similar to rotational thought, which is why these theorists, in particular Amman, are arguably still applicable to contemporary geopolitics. The ideologies that are held together by Mackenzie and his concept of the Heartland Theory are out-dated and irrelevant to contemporary geopolitics. His idea of a World Island as set geographical position that is highly inflexible, is opposite to what is expected of modern thought. Walters (1975) argued the Heartland Theory was one perspective of the globe, and stated, policy is made in the minds of men; its contours may not concur with a true map of the world. As contours are a minimal factor in Mans school of thought, he has become highly popular regarding sea power. His works on Naval influence is highly relevant to contemporary geopolitics. To cater for an increasingly globalizes world, that is heavily dependent on foreign resources and trade, sea power, and navies essentially, are key to ensure that a sustained level of growth and power is achieved. The United States of America is a clear example of a major power that uses its naval capacity to adhere to Mahayana logic, that reflects his tridents and six principle conditions that are still existent today. Mackenzie and the Heartland Theory was of high relevance in the 19th and 20th century. At that time, Eastern Europe was of a favorable strategic geographic area, lying on the brink of the western and eastern world. It had an abundance of rich resources key to state superiority. However, in the modern era, geographic importance is not as fundamental to a successful nation as Dally and Total (1998:16) quite clearly explain, our conveniently conventional geopolitical imagination, which envisions and maps the world in terms of spatial blocs, territorial presence and fixed identities, is no longer adequate in a world where pace appears to be left behind by pace, where territoriality is under eclipse by dialectically, and where simple settled identities are blurring into networks of complex unsettled hybrid. Mackenzie failed to recognize the importance that lies outside the heartland, which consists of the Riemann and Offshore Islands. To conform to Mackenzie, would be to say that the US is a mere island that is dependent on situations and outcomes that occur in Eastern Europe. In fact, it is the opposite scenario if applied contemporaries. Nicholas Sparkman, a strategies, argued against Mackenzie, by stating that the Americas have the resources and power in which to prevent states inside the heartland from achieving the traditionally adhered, world dominant status. Dally and Total (1998) elaborate further, arguing that if Mackenzie and the Heartland Theory were still prevalent, the US wouldnt be the super power it is today. They identified the outside inside approach, which redeploys the shape of heartland geopolitics in favor of the Americas. Woolworth (1999) states that since the collapse of the Soviet Union, a unpopular world has been dominated by US power, which generates an additional claim that Mackenzie really is irrelevant in contemporary geopolitics. Despite other elements are equal or even greater to sustain and improve national power, the Mahayana late 19th century logic of sea power, is still existent in contemporary power domination. Mahayana theory consists of two tridents, discussed by James R Holmes (2009). The first of his tridents, logic, governs strategic and geopolitical ideas relating to sea power. There is a tripartite element that consists commercially in the sense of obtaining wealth, politically for naming national power, and militarily for allowing access to these resources and maintaining these routes while upholding and reinforcing an authoritative stance, which is a clear purpose regarding the nation of the United States. His second trident, grammar, provides the rules of preparing for warfare and naval readiness. It consists martially and operational in nature, through production and overseas markets and bases. Holmes and Yeshiva (2010) come to appreciate the relevance of Mans logic, more than his grammar. The grammar of combat is out-dated, providing that the last fleet engagement was at the Elite Gulf in 1944. An extremely relevant question regarding the United States need for an immediate fleet is extremely relevant. An interesting discussion made by Holmes and Yeshiva (2010) addresses the questionable issue about the United States needing to have high-end ships and criticizes the mindset in which the nation has regarding contemporary geopolitics and outcomes for the future of naval warfare. Amman used six principles that primarily affect a nations ability to become a powerful sea power: geographical position, physical conformation, extent of territory, size of the population, character of the people, and character of the government. Parker (2003) stated these conditions were valid requirements for national power in the late 19th century, are valid requirements for national power in the 21st century, and will be valid requirements for national power for some time to come. The United States is a clear exemplification of how these principles are applied successful in order to maintain, and increase their unpopular dominance. The first principle, geographical position is supremely fundamental to the United States Navy. Because the countries contours consist of vast coastlines and occupy hundreds of military bases overseas, its position s essential to naval dominance. The concern Amman had in his time was that the United States didnt have any ports or trade centers close to the heartland. This concern has clearly been erased through the abundance of bases around Europe. By using the overseas military bases, such as the base in Bahrain, it creates assistance in trade through the Malice Straight, which is a huge chock point in the shipping industry and is favorable to piracy. To be militarily active in a position such as this, allows for United States integration into international assistance and gives the power to deter hostile forces at sea. By having the multitude of bases, it allows the US Navy to address any situation at any time, regardless of its geographical position. In this case, the United States addressed Mans concern, allowing for a greater geopolitical influence around the world. What Amman means when discussing his second principle of physical conformation, is the physical geography that determines if interaction with surrounding foreign areas is amplified or discouraged. In favor of the United States, the ports on the east, west and Gulf coats receive relatively good climates and are all generally rich in resources. This allows for easy access, which results in the high use of the capabilities and use of resources available to the nation. An example of how rich the resources are, consist of 323 million barrels of oil and 670 billion cubic feet of gas pockets still available off the west coast of the United States as discussed by Emerson et al (2012). From this accessibility and richness, the United States clearly adheres to the second principle Amman expects from a dominant sea power. What Mans third principle of extent of territory relates to is the irrelevance that the size of a nation has, but rather the length of the coastline elevate to its size. The coast of the United States is a staggering 20,000 kilometers on length, which allows Amman to use the United States Pacific coastline to emphasis its importance it has to assist militarily to other bordering regions such as Australia and Asia. It also uses its vast Atlantic coast to interact with the European and African continents. Mans appreciation for the extent of coastline can therefore relate to the ease in which the United States has with the geographic nature of the United States. The fourth principle of number of population is another major influence that determines a nations dominant sea power. Amman emphasizes that active military personnel are key to a nations ability to act when necessary, and therefore is a highly important factor. With the use of statistics from CNN (201 1), the United States population of 318 million people is a vital component of this principle, but a rather more significant one is the focus on the 1. 4 million active frontline and 850,000 active reserve personnel around the world in 150 different countries that support Mans (1890) concept of being, readily available for employment on ship-board and for the creation of naval material. The high amount of personnel on active duty, stresses the interest and importance the United States has around the world. Competing nations such as China and India, who have a much higher population than the United States are becoming increasingly threatening. However, the United States has one of the highest amounts of military expenditure, utilizing 4. 2% of its GAP (World Bank 2012). With this high amount of spending, it allows the United States to adhere to what Amman believed to be the most important factor regarding population. As long as the resources, equipment and training and personnel are maintained at a steady, acceptable rate that could act in a time of crisis, it will suffice to threats. This goes to show that the United States is a nation that understands futuristic implications that may arise, and is seen to be ready to address these threats from a Mahayana standpoint. National character was Mans interest with industry and trade, which made up his fifth principle. Parker (2003) uses an analogy to compare how England and Holland acted in the colonial era. The author looked at Mans work in addressing the character of these nations, which seemed to then manifest their administration of colonial conquest. The nations examined seemed to use not a sword, but labor to immigrate, as discussed by Amman (1890). This is similarly seen in the United States objectives of commercial interest in the liberations of international trade in the past century, and in years to come, which again, portrays Mans relevant ideologies. The character of government is Mans final principle. He addresses this idea by deciding whether a nation is at peace or war. In peacetime, the policies can either be in favor or against the industries related to naval capacity. In the midst of war, it is fundamental for government decision making o increase defensive spending compared to peacetime budgeting. It is safe to say, the current United States government addresses international affairs and situations that they are at all times, at war. Woolworth (1999) confirms with the diminishing notion of the unpopular world, a mindset like this is essential to survival.

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 7

Assignment Example Thus there exists a significant relationship between the content and the process. Content is one side of teaching on the science subject where you need to know what needs to be taught. The content is the knowledge side of the activity of teaching. This knowledge needs to be imparted in an effective manner in the classroom which suits the pedagogy of the students and generates an interest on the subject. For example, an adoption of the process of meta-cognitive discussions include discussing the strategies required to effectively disseminate the learning to the students creates a balance between the two concepts in the classroom. Setting ground rules, providing a road map, taking feedbacks from the students on their expectations followed by delivery of the educational content fulfils the objective of learning in a balanced manner. Answer 2 The five elements of effective adolescent literacy program are i) direct, explicit and comprehensive instruction, ii) effective instructional princ iples embedded in the content, iii) motivation and self directed learning, iv) text based collaborative learning, v) strategic tutoring. In elementary level grade, strategic tutoring is essential for effective adolescent literacy program. The teachings on science concepts are imparted through strategic instructions on reading and writing given to an individual and group of students. The requirements of the students are assessed in terms of their needs and expectations and strategic instructions are given to the students to suit their capacity of learning. For example, a group of students who may not be able to keep up with pace of progress of studies could be instructed separately to bring their reading and writing skills on the same platform. This helps to carry out the classroom program in elementary grade in an effective manner. Answer 3 A culturally responsive classroom environment celebrates the existence of different culture and languages in the environment. The activities to support culturally responsive instruction includes i) labelling of objects of the classroom like desk, chair, table by different languages, ii) inviting students from different cultural background to share stories of the culture and religion of their origin, iii) use of video clips of different regional sources in the course of learning, iv) having a world map or globe to promote acceptance of global views, v) using choral readings for students with limited fluency of language of instruction. During science classes in elementary grade, the invitation to students to share stories on scientific achievements of their countries would help to promote a culturally responsive classroom environment (Gay, 2010). Answer 4 The B-D-A framework of teaching is adopted by the teachers that are largely dependent on the students present in the classroom, the text that is to be studied during the course of education and the kind of activities that are to be performed in the classrooms. The three stag es of B-D-A activities are the before reading stage, during reading stage and the after reading stage. The purpose of the before-reading stage is to understand the knowledge and awareness of the students on the subject. The responses of the students are connected to the areas of learning through engagement in activities. For example, small groups of students are formed and are made to participate on activities related to science subjects and then feedback is taken from the students on t

Nigerian Politics as a Basis of the Case Study on African Politics Research Paper

Nigerian Politics as a Basis of the Case Study on African Politics - Research Paper Example This paper endeavors to help understand the nuances of Nigerian politics. To be able to achieve this it is important to dwell briefly on its colonial days. By 1914 the British had control over almost all of Nigeria except for Kamerun, which went through various sporadic invasions by the Germans and other. Prior to that Nigeria had already established itself as a prime producer of Palm oil and enjoyed elitist status among other countries in the continent having abolished the slave trade much before the rest of Africa. The prominent kingdoms in Nigeria at that time â€Å"were the Northeastern kingdom of Borno, the Hausa city-state/kingdoms of Katsina, Kano, Zaria, and Gobir in northern-central Nigeria, the Yoruba city-states/kingdoms of Ife, Oyo, and Ijebu in southwestern Nigeria, the southern kingdom of Benin, and the Igbo communities of eastern Nigeria.† (iss.co). With the abolition of slave trade they were now able to expand their trade routes and traded all the way across th e Sahara. When Britain took over a Nigerian legislative council was formed with minimum African representation. The Northern and Southern territories were merged into one and native leaders still continued their rule under the supervision of the colonial leaders. This however brought about several ethnic and religious conflicts and finally in order to curb the strife a new constitution under the United Kingdom divided Nigeria into Eastern, Western and Northern regions. This was done mainly to accommodate the powerful ethnic tribes of Igbo in the east; Yoruba in the west and the Hausa and Fulani ethnic groups in the north. The rise of independent freedom fighter groups was inevitable and a federal government established in 1954 and Nigeria evolved into a self-governing federation. The political system of Nigeria at that time was that of a Federal government which governed the various autonomous regions. This was until Nigeria attained Independence in 1960. Nigeria Post- Independence Nigeria Post Independence experimented with various political systems in an attempt to maintain political stability while giving freedom for its various and diverse ethnic groups to express and exercise their rights freely. Post Colonial rule there began a struggle for power by the regions which were non-centralized or issued stateless by the British. The centralized regions had established a formal rule and because of the power of indirect rule given by the British to their native leaders, there was no conflict between the ruled and the rulers. The demarcation thus established was based on power, social and economic status. The non-centralized regions however were divided in their various political ideologies and religious and cultural practices. These regions

What Is Geographic Profiling?

What Is Geographic Profiling? Crime is not randomly distributed and offenses are more likely to occur in certain places and at certain times. The apprehension process can be significantly accelerated if geographic profiling is used to organize an abundance of information via geographical links (Ramsland n.d.). This technique is an effective tool in ascertaining a suspects residence and/or place of employment because it is conducted in a scientific manner on the basis of well-established psychological principles (Sammons n.d.). The geographical patterns in data can be analyzed using the following principle elements: mobility, mental maps, locality demographics and distance (nij.gov 2006). A geographical analysis highlights the crime location, any physical boundaries that were present (that might not otherwise be noticed), and the types of roads and highways that come into both the abduction and body dump sites. Hypotheses are developed which can be tested against evidence and modified or rejected as the evidence dictates. (Sammons n.d.) Objective measurements are frequently used as a component of geographic profiling in order to pinpoint precisely the locus of criminal activity. (Sammons n.d.) One of the methods used to obtained predictions is a geographic profiling system. The area most likely to contain the offenders home is computed by the system using algorithms and indicated in the probability surfaces. The probability of an offender residing at a particular location generally decreases with increasing distance from an offense, so these algorithms are referred to as distance decay functions (Bennell, Corey Keyton 2007). According to the available research the accuracy of geographic profiling systems reduces the overall area that police have to search by up to 90% (Bennell, Corey Keyton 2007). This method can assist police through the use of the most effective tools to target crime prevention resources in the appropriate areas. When we understand the link between offenses and location it is beneficial in our understanding of why certain locations attract more crime than others. Investigative efforts can be targeted when we are able to predict characteristics of the offender(s) responsible for a series of crimes. The use of geographic profiling also facilitates in law enforcements ability to prioritize suspects by an individuals most likely place of residence, their knowledge of a particular area and to determine which offenses are linked and which are not, so that they can determine whether or not a certain crime may have been carried out by the same offender(s) (Sam mons n.d.). GIS capability, database management, powerful visualization tools and analytic engine are incorporated together and compose what is known as computerized geographic profiling (Harris 1999). The use of geographic profiling can be deployed through a number of investigative strategies. Some examples may include: department of motor vehicle searches, mass DNA screening prioritization, canvasses and searches, zip code prioritization, information request mailouts, patrol saturation and surveillance, address-based searches of police record systems and suspect and tip prioritization (Harris 1999). In order for computerized geographic profiling to be most effective crime locations should first be broken down by type such as: body dump sites for a murder, victim encounter or murder. Each of these crime locations should be entered into the system by latitude/longitude, digitization or by entering the address (Harris 1999). Scenarios are created and weighted based on crime locations and the use of theoretical and methodological principles (Harris 1999). A probability chart known as a z-score histogram is created from the suspect addressed and is evaluated according to their hit percentage on the chart Mental Maps A mental map, is a cognitive image of ones surroundings that is developed through experiences, travel routes, reference points and centers of activity. This is another significant factor in geographical profiling. (nij.gov 2006) Each person has their own mental map that contains the places he or she feels safe and takes for granted regardless of offender status. These mental maps do not accurately represent reality, but rather the perspective and experience of the individual. (Sammons n.d.) An offenders mental map can be reconstructed and interpreted with the assistance of the familiarity of the location in relation to his or her awareness of space (Allaire, Beauregard, Leclerc et al 2007). Inferences about a criminal can be made about them by reviewing the distribution of their offenses since they were likely influenced by that individuals mental map of an area (Sammons n.d.) Crime site selection is influenced by these mental maps as the offender must first be aware of the site befo re a target can be victimized. (Allaire, Beauregard, Leclerc et al 2007). Many times an offenders mental map will change as he becomes more confident which in turn will increase his range of criminal activity. A criminal may be either geographically stable or transient or may start as geographically stable and become transient with time and number of criminal acts. (nij.gov 2006) An offender is influenced by several factors which determine his tendency toward stability or mobility such as: their experience with travel, means for getting places, sense of personal security, and predatory motivations. (nij.gov 2006) Routine Activity Theory and Circle Theory Routine Activity Theory otherwise known as RAT is another approach that is taken into consideration by geographical profiling. Three circumstances must coincide according to the RAT principle: a motivated offender, a suitable victim and the absence of a capable guardian (Sammons n.d.). RAT assumes that in any area there are a certain number of people motivated to commit crime (Sammons n.d.) This theory sees offenses as just another activity that a person might do on a regular basis without any attempt to explain the reason why. Another belief of this theory is that the routine activity of victims is important because people tend to stick with familiar territory. Clues about where an offender lives can be provided by an analysis of all the crime scenes (Ramsland n.d.). There is a difference between perceived distance and actual distance and certain components influence how this disparity can affect the commission of a crime. The perception of distance varies from one person to the nex t and can be influenced by any of the following: familiarity with a specific region, types of roads, availability of transportation and number of barriers such as bridges or state boundaries (nij.gov 2006) Since most peoples activities are confined to a few fairly limited area where they work, where they live, where they socialize a persons offenses will be limited in that same geographical area according to RAT (Sammons n.d.). A successful example of geographical profiling using RAT involves a computerized system called Dragnet. The location of the offenses allows Dragnet to predict where an offender is likely to lived based on that information. Dragnet created a map that suggested probabilities that the offender responsible was based in different regions according to the information it received on a number of linked rapes in Las Vegas. The focus of the investigation was able to be narrowed to a single apartment block as a result of the investigating officers knowledge of the local area and the offender in turn was subsequently arrested (Sammons n.d.). Canter and Larkin (1193) came up with the circle theory of environmental range which proposed that the majority of the time, if a circle is drawn that encompasses all of a series of linked crimes, the offender will be based somewhere within the circle. (Sammons n.d.) There is a fair amount of support for this view. Godwin and Canter (1997) found that 85 per cent of the offenders they studied lived inside the circle encompassing their offenses (Sammons n.d.). Serial rapes and arson attacks in Australia were reviewed by Koscis and Irwin (1997) which confirmed the circle theory. The only exception appeared to be burglary since burglars only lived in the circle defined by the offenses about half the time. A review the offense locations of 53 serial murderers in Germany was conducted by Snook et al (2005).The results of his study discovered that the killer lived within six miles of where the bodies were found in 63% of the cases. Younger offenders travel shorter distances and killers with higher IQ travel further. Information about the dispersal of offenses may indicate some general characteristics of the offender responsible because it has been found that experience and intelligence influence killers attempts to disguise their crimes (Sammons n.d.) Importance of Geographic Profiling and how it can be most effective Geographical profiling has a particular importance in the United States because there are many different law enforcement agencies which share little data between them, so this method enables a connection between crimes to be established that might not have otherwise been linked (Sammons n.d.). In order to construct an accurate geographical profile all of the following elements need to be included in the assessment: computerized analysis, study of area maps, analysis of neighborhood demographics for both the abduction site and body dump site, examination of the crime scenes, complete familiarity with the case file and interviews with investigators and witnesses. (Ramsland n.d.) In order for geographical profiling to be effective the following should be taken into consideration: it requires accurate data on the offenses that have been committed in an area, police data on crime is likely underreported, so the data used to generate the crime maps is likely to be incomplete as a result, s ince police will have a vast amount of data available it may be difficult for them to determine what should be left out when they attempt to construct a crime map and additional problems can arise from inconsistencies in how the locations of the crimes may be recorded by the police (Sammonds n.d.). Information about five or more crime locations needs to be available in order for geographic profilers to be most effective according to a 2005 study conducted by Rossmo (Bennell, Corey Keyton, et al. 2007). He also claimed that as additional crime locations were incorporated into the prediction that there would be an even further increase in accuracy. (Bennell, Corey Keyton, et al. 2007). This assumption is not supported by the analysis of CrimeStats performance across maps with varying numbers of crimes. Participant performance is shown to increase from three to five crimes, but the increase vanishes when making predictions from seven crimes according to the findings in this study (Be nnell, Corey Keyton, et al. 2007). . A localized improvement in performance was found with five crime locations, but it is not evidence of a large positive correlation between the number of crime locations and predictive accuracy. Accuracy does not increase as more crime locations are added to the information used to make a prediction (Bennell, Corey Keyton, et al. 2007). Generalizability When a crime occurs in a specific location, the area surrounding that location may experience an increased risk of a similar crime occurring for a distinct period of time which is known as a near repeat phenomenon. Trends in spatiotemporal proximity which involve both space and time are referred to as near repeat crimes (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). A rival explanation for the observation of near repeat crime is spree crime which is a pattern characterized by high frequency of criminal activity involving the same offender across a short time span such as hours or days. This phenomenon can be generalized across multiple crime types and effect various temporal bands on near repeat pattern. The temporal dimension of near repeat crime may vary across different types of offenses (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). The majority of crime types have a component of repeat victimization except for manslaughter or murder. A disproportionate amount of crime has been shown by research to occur in specific geographic areas known as hot spots. These areas have a higher than average risk of victimization and vary in size, but are typically blocks or street segments. The identification of hot spots allows law enforcement to understand where crimes are most likely to take place, so they can more effectively target its resources. (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). Repeat victimization is different than hot spots which include multiple targets and crime types and they are not concentrated in a specific amount of time even if they are concentrated in space. An overall consensus was found that homes that are burglarized have a higher likelihood of being burglarized again in the future. In the month following an original burglary Johnson et al. (1997) found the risk of re-victimization to be elevated. Another study conducted by Morgan (2001) also found that re-victimization was most likely to occur in the month following a burglary, however the data reflected that areas of higher ov erall burglary rates had more stability in their likelihood of repeat victimization (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). A near repeat pattern for burglaries that extended at least 200m for two weeks existed in all of the study locations examined by Johnson et al (2007). This was the result in all ten areas within the five counties despite the fact that the patterns differed in the geographic areas. A pattern of increased risk of victimization in the surrounding area of a residence after a burglary was discovered by Morgan. Morgan referred to these incidents as near repeats. In the week following a burglary the homes in the surrounding area were particularly at an increased risk of burglary (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). They also determined that affluent areas as opposed to deprived areas appeared to reflect more evident space-time clustering. Townsley et al. (2003) found that there was an increase in burglary incidents within 200 m (approximately 650 feet) and 2 months of an origi nal burglary. Similarly, Johnson and Bowers (2004) found increased risk of burglaries for dwellings within 400 feet of a previously burgled home for 1 to 2 months following the incident, especially on the same side of the road (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). The overall burglary rate can be reduced by 25% if repeat victimization can be prevented and is also a highly important crime reduction strategy. A similar result to burglary was found when Johnson et al. (2009) looked at the spatiotemporal relationship of theft from motor vehicles. Over a two week period evidence of near repeat crimes was found occurring within 800m of the original incident. Ratcliffe and Rengert (2008) analyzed the spatial and temporal distributions of shooting incidents in Philadelphia to explore the near repeat phenomenon for traditional violent crime (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). The analysis for this crime type was partially guided by the theoretical information provided by Ratcliffe and Rengert. Thi s study discovered there is a significantly increased likelihood of another shooting within one block of the initial shooting for two weeks after the incident. It cannot be determined whether a near repeat pattern for shooting is common to all geographic areas or whether characteristics specific to the study location influenced the pattern since this was the first study to examine shootings (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). A global near repeat phenomenon for shootings may exist if the Philadelphia pattern is exhibited in different geographical areas, but if they did not find similar results then individual locations would need to identify their own unique near repeat patterns if they existed at all. The near repeat pattern for auto theft spans a greater spatial distance than the other crimes which is likely attributed to the goal of stealing specific vehicles, but patterns of offending will vary according to motivation. Any near repeat pattern for robbery occurs with small spatial and temporal bands and exhibits a small, doughnut like spatial pattern as a result of the spontaneity of robbery (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). Prior research has shown robbery to cluster temporally within 1 to 2 days, and spatially, close to the original incident, but not within the immediate 500m (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). The spatial similarity of near repeat patterns for robbery and auto theft regardless of crime type illustrates that offenders committing different crimes may still share a comparable decision making process. Offenders may still work within distinct reference areas regardless of crime type which is the basis for geographic profiling and offender identification through circle theory. Repeat offenders select their targets in familiar areas that tend to be closer to the offenders residence (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). The result is that geographic patterns can be found in crimes that are linked to the same perpetrator, which can then be used to identi fy the probable location of the offenders residence. Patterns in both near repeat crimes and spree offending can likely be attributed to the same offender. Bowers and Johnson (2004) found that near repeat burglaries exhibited the same modus operandi as the original crimes, indicating that near repeat burglaries were likely being committed by the same offenders or groups of offenders. Bernasco (2008) found that same-offender involvement is directly tied to spatial and temporal distances between burglaries. Additionally, Johnson et al. (2009) found that crimes occurring closest to one another in space and time were most likely to be attributed to the same offender (Cook, Nobles Ward et al. 2011). A successful first offense increases the likelihood of repeat offending in the general area although the same exact location may not be re-victimized. Residential Proximity Research has consistently shown that the number of criminal offenses that an offender commits decreases as distance from an offenders residence increases with the exception of violent and/or sex offenders (Donnay, Duwe Tewksbury 2008). The determination of offense location was influenced more by characteristics of events and relationships rather than characteristics of victims and opportunities (Donnay, Duwe Tewksbury 2008).Offenses occured an average of more than three miles from offenders homes according to data from five hundred sixty five rapes committed by serial rapists. Of this same population 86% marauded outward into an area of an average of 180 square miles rather than offending against victims that lived nearby (Donnay, Duwe Tewksbury 2008). In New Zealand, serial sexual assault offenders committed their offenses an average of 3 kilometers (1.86 miles) away from their residences. For other types of violent crime, Groff and McEwen (2006) reported that homicide offenders committed the offense, on average, 0.69 miles from their homes. In addition, Tita and Griffiths (2005) showed that across 9 years of homicides in Pittsburgh, homicide offenders rarely killed in their own neighborhoods (Donnay, Duwe Tewksbury 2008).When offenders commit their crimes it is likely to result in different spatial patterns because factors related to opportunity and risk will vary even if motivational level across offender types is constant. Since the targets of serial burglars are immobile they will exhibit more commuting behavior than serial murderers (Bennell, Corey Keyton, et al. 2007). A burglar can travel into the same area to commit more crimes in the future because while the crime is being committed he or she can locate potential targets through the observation of other residences in the area. While serial murderers may observe other targets while offending it is not very likely that these potential victims will remain in this same place for long (Bennell, Corey Keyton, et al. 2007). Another factor that will determine whether an individual will exhibit commuting behavior is the level of perceived risk associated with committing crimes in the same geographic area (Bennell, Corey Keyton, et al. 2007). Serial burglars would not be dissuaded from repeatedly commuting into the same area to commit their crimes because they are largely unaffected by the risks associated with committing multiple offenses in close proximity to one another (Bennell, Corey Keyton, et al. 2007). Serial murderers would typically have to exhibit marauding behavior to avoid detection. As a result of the attention their crimes receive they would not be able to display the same behavior as the serial burglars (Bennell, Corey Keyton, et al. 2007). Rational Choice Approach There is a relationship between the behavioral and geographic aspect of criminal behavior referred to as the rational choice approach. This approach recognizes that the offenders behaviors are dependent on environmental cues associated with the criminal event like: nature (indoor vs. outdoor locations) and familiarity with the offense location (Allaire, Beauregard, Leclerc et al 2007).Target selection is highly dependent on the physical environment and there is a pattern in both spatial and temporal distribution of offenders and victims. As a result of the connection between the types of location and the types of strategy exhibited by an offender means that offender strategies might be triggered by the types of location at which the offender and victim met (Allaire, Beauregard, Leclerc et al 2007).One study conducted by Ouimet and Proulx (1994) reflects the correlates of spatial behavior in violent crimes by showing that a majority of child molesters offended in or near their residen ces. There are several advantages to an offenders home over competing locations which make it the best possible location to commit an offense (Allaire, Beauregard, Leclerc et al 2007).One of these advantages may be facilitating the security children might feel which might make them more willing to participate in sexual contact. There is an association between interactional, transactional and adaptive nature of human behavior. The level of violence of the crime is positively associated with the distance traveled by the offender from his home to the target. (Allaire, Beauregard, Leclerc et al 2007).The offender has to adapt his crime strategies and use the appropriate approach method for the situation. Information processing and decision making occurs through experience whether or not a person is a criminal. For example, child molesters may have to travel farther if they are not able to find a suitable victim near their homes. It will become harder for the offender to convince a child take a car trip with a stranger and get him or her to return to the offenders home the farther he has to travel (Allaire, Beauregard, Leclerc et al 2007). Geographic profiling must take into account the linkage between location types and both offender victim search methods and attack methods. Hunting patterns may be helpful to determine which crime locations are the best predictors of an offenders anchor point (Allaire, Beauregard, Leclerc et al 2007). The relationship between offending and geographic behavior may serve as the basis for integrated criminal-geographic profiling as unique investigative strategy (Allaire, Beauregard, Leclerc et al 2007). CONCLUSION Geographic profiling determines the most probable area that an offender lives through the use of an investigative methodology that reviews the locations of a connected series of crimes. This methodology is based on a model that describes the hunting behavior of the offender. It is generally applied in cases of serial murder, rape, arson, robbery and/or bombing cases, but may also be implemented in single crimes that involve multiple scenes or other significant geographic characteristics (Harris 1999). Geographical profiling is an attempt to make predictions about an offender based on information obtained from the crime scene such as the location and timing of the offense (Sammons n.d.). People in general take more short trips than long trips in their daily lives according to the distance decay concept, so offenders are more likely to live close to the sites of their crimes than far away (Harris 1999). Geographic profiling is essential in that it refocuses the scope of the case from t he whole metropolitan area to a small area of the community which in turn substantially reduces the amount of time and resources required to conduct the investigation. (Ramsland n.d.) Geographic profiling provides a means for managing the large volume of information generated in major crime investigations and should be regarded as one of several powerful decision support tools available to the detective. It is best employed in conjunction with other police methods and does not in itself solve cases. When properly decoded geographic crime patterns are clues that can be used to point the detective in the direction of the offender (Harris 1999).

Violence Towards Women in Tibet Essays -- Culture Cultural

Violence Towards Women in Tibet Introduction: Due to gender discrimination, there is more violence against Tibetan women than men by the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Unconsented and forceful acts of violence have been committed against Tibetan women, specifically targeted at Buddhist nuns, since the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1950. While Tibetan women non-violently protest the Chinese government, they are physically, emotionally, and sexually abused by troops and within prisons. The human rights of these women have been completely disregarded. History of Women in Tibet: Tibetan women essentially had equal rights with men in their country. They had the privilege of many civil liberties that women of other nationalities did not have. Outsiders viewed Tibet as a perfect society in the mountains. Although women had many rights and a lot of power within their own families, Tibet was no Shangri-La. While women were usually equal to men under the law, women in Tibet were clearly socially inferior to their male counterparts. After the Chinese invasion of 1950, the Chinese claimed through propaganda that Tibetan women were repressed in the society. They claimed they would absolve women of their inferiority and get rid of class and regional distinctions. In fact they have only subjected women to more pain, torture, and emotional suffering. In ancient Tibet, women take pleasure in similar culture and freedoms as men. Due to a culture of Tibetan Buddhism, equality is promoted throughout the country. Tibetologists explain hardships of women through the strict class variations instead of an inequality between the sexes. Marriage rights in Tibet are equal for both men and women. There are three types o... ...lic of China: Call for accountability for Tibetan deaths in custody in Drapchi Prison.† Amnesty International, February, 2002. < http://www.amnestyusa.org/stoptorture/document.do?id=8B95BB3DE3AF900A8 0256B7600415B45>. Omvedt, Gail. Violence against Women: New Movements and New Theories in India. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1990. Tibet Justice Center. Violence Against Tibetan Women. March, 1995. Tibet Justice Center. Violence and Discrimination Against Tibetan Women. December, 1998. Tibetan Women’s Association. Our Will Against Their Might; Women Prisoners of Conscience in Tibet: A Report. New Delhi: Tibetan Women’s Association, 1995. Yardley, Jim. â€Å"China Grants and Early Release of Tibetan Nun.† New York Times, February, 2004. Violence Towards Women in Tibet Essays -- Culture Cultural Violence Towards Women in Tibet Introduction: Due to gender discrimination, there is more violence against Tibetan women than men by the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Unconsented and forceful acts of violence have been committed against Tibetan women, specifically targeted at Buddhist nuns, since the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1950. While Tibetan women non-violently protest the Chinese government, they are physically, emotionally, and sexually abused by troops and within prisons. The human rights of these women have been completely disregarded. History of Women in Tibet: Tibetan women essentially had equal rights with men in their country. They had the privilege of many civil liberties that women of other nationalities did not have. Outsiders viewed Tibet as a perfect society in the mountains. Although women had many rights and a lot of power within their own families, Tibet was no Shangri-La. While women were usually equal to men under the law, women in Tibet were clearly socially inferior to their male counterparts. After the Chinese invasion of 1950, the Chinese claimed through propaganda that Tibetan women were repressed in the society. They claimed they would absolve women of their inferiority and get rid of class and regional distinctions. In fact they have only subjected women to more pain, torture, and emotional suffering. In ancient Tibet, women take pleasure in similar culture and freedoms as men. Due to a culture of Tibetan Buddhism, equality is promoted throughout the country. Tibetologists explain hardships of women through the strict class variations instead of an inequality between the sexes. Marriage rights in Tibet are equal for both men and women. There are three types o... ...lic of China: Call for accountability for Tibetan deaths in custody in Drapchi Prison.† Amnesty International, February, 2002. < http://www.amnestyusa.org/stoptorture/document.do?id=8B95BB3DE3AF900A8 0256B7600415B45>. Omvedt, Gail. Violence against Women: New Movements and New Theories in India. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1990. Tibet Justice Center. Violence Against Tibetan Women. March, 1995. Tibet Justice Center. Violence and Discrimination Against Tibetan Women. December, 1998. Tibetan Women’s Association. Our Will Against Their Might; Women Prisoners of Conscience in Tibet: A Report. New Delhi: Tibetan Women’s Association, 1995. Yardley, Jim. â€Å"China Grants and Early Release of Tibetan Nun.† New York Times, February, 2004.

The Need for Protecting the Environment

Environment, the word is a bit common, everything that surrounds us consist of our environment. We can say that environment is something which provides us everything. But can you think of a single thing we do for our environment ? The answer would most probably be NO. Today we humans hardly care what would be the effects of it on our environment. For thousands of years man has exploited the environment in the name is development and in return we humans defile it and pollute it. We are cutting trees at a large scale which is leading to higher levels of Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere. We kill animals for their skin and that in turn is disturbing the food web which causes unbalance in the nature. We can see that every little thing we did and we are doing is ultimately causing harm to us. Increasing levels of CO2, depletion of ozone layer, global warning, floods, droughts, earthquakes and all these things are gifted by us to our precious and priceless environment. If we go on exploiting our environment in the name of our use and needs, we are certainly inviting destruction and disasters . Be it forests, naturals resources, water, soil, rain, mountains, flora or fauna, we have destroyed it all . The point is not that how much wrong we have done and how much right we need to do now but simple actions such as planting trees can help us a lot. One does not need to be a great environmentalist or ecologist it protect our environment, it is simply human instinct.

The Invention Of The Automobile Industry - 1450 Words

Background: One of the most innovative inventions of the 19th century was the invention of the automobile. It is clear that the automobile industry has changed the way people and goods travel. The industry basely existed until a man named Henry Ford made the automobile accessible to the public. He put into full motion what we now know today as the automobile industry. Henry Ford had both changed the automobile industry, as well as the manufacturing industry. Ford did this with the way he used the assembly line manufacturing technique. The assembly line technique is defined as â€Å"an arrangement of machines, tools, and workers in which a product is assembled by having each perform a specific, successive operation on an incomplete unit as it†¦show more content†¦As the automobile industry continued to grow, other automobile companies began to arise. However, The Ford Motor Company continued to be innovative in order to stay ahead of the other competing companies. To stay innovative in the modern days of technology, Ford has currently adopted another newer method of production, which is 3D printing. Ford is utilizing 3D printing to create parts for their vehicles into to maintain a more efficient manufacturing process. Technology: Ford was part of the team that was involved in the invention of 3D printing in the 1980’s. Ford is a current customer of the ExOne s S-Max 3-D sand printer. Ford is using this technology to manufacture automobile prototype parts like cylinder heads, air vents, intake manifolds and many others.2 Some of the benefits of 3D printing is that it reduces cost, reduces the time it takes to create an automobile part, and Ford is able to increase its production of parts. For example, Ford and ExOne were able to utilize the 3D technology in 2010. In 2010 Ford was trying to figure out how to make their EcoBoost engine in the new F-150 pickup trucks more efficient. Ford created a prototype engine with the EcoBoost from 3D printing.2 Ford hopes in the future to be able to print automobile parts not only in plastic but also in metal.2 For Ford to be one of the front runners in 3D technology they need to understand completely how the